The inadvertent transfer of exotic marine species in the ballast water of international shipping is a major environmental concern. Each year, some 12 billion tonnes of ballast water, transporting an estimated 15,000 species, pose a threat to biodiversity, fisheries and aquaculture which is recognised by the International Maritime Organisation. The massive volume of ballast water makes complete and cost-effective treatment a challenge. Dinoflagellate cysts are among the most commonly found toxic organisms in ballast water and sediments and are particularly problematic because of the natural resistance provided by their cellulose armour and the dormancy period of their life-cycle.
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